When compared to other computer devices, touchscreens are unique because they handle both input and output — interpreting the user's actions while featuring a graphic display. They allow the user to interact directly with what's on the screen, unlike a mouse that moves a cursor. Theoretically, this is a faster design because the pointer doesn't need to travel across the screen between different objects. Touchscreens can additionally come with a number of features that increase their functionality.
In our modern world, touchscreens are a common sight. According to a Pew Research survey conducted in November 2016, 77% of Americans own a smartphone and 51% own a tablet computer. While the touchscreen has been around for decades, it's never seen popularity like this. But where did they come from? How did they become so widespread? And how can we expect them to change?
The first touchscreen was invented in 1965 by Eric A. Johnson who worked at the Royal Radar Establishment in Malvern, England. His first article, "Touch display—a novel input/output device for computers" describes his work and features a diagram of the design. The invention is known as a capacitive touchscreen, which uses an insulator, in this case glass, coated with a transparent conductor, like indium tin oxide. The user's finger also acts as a conductor and disrupts the capacitance of the conducting layer. In more simple terms, touching the screen causes a change in the electric charge that the computer detects. Johnson patented his design in 1966, improved it in 1968, and wrote another article in the same year. At some point, it was adopted by British air traffic controllers and was used into the 1990s.
Another design came in the 1970s, with the resistive touchscreen. American inventor, scientist, health physicist, and educator Dr. G. Samuel Hurst discovered this design while studying atomic physics with a Van de Graaff generator, a machine that accumulates and releases electric charge. He and two colleagues used electrically conductive paper to read the coordinates of their analysis, completing their experiments in a few hours when it could have taken days.
The University of Kentucky — that Hurst had been working at — tried to patent the idea on his behalf, but he had other ideas. When returned to work at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, he dedicated time after-hours to work on his almost accidental invention. Hurst and nine others worked to perfect the design, calling their group "Elographics" while applying it to controlling computers. This design uses a number of thin resistive layers with thin gaps between. When a finger presses down on the screen, they're pushed together, creating voltage that a computer can read as a location. Because it uses pressure, it can be pressed with either a finger or stylus. In addition, the design is cheaper than a capacitive screen.
Tech companies were starting to take notice of this new way to control computers. Hewlett-Packard was the first to release a product that put touchscreens in the hands of everyday users. HP made a name for itself in the 1960s and 70s for creating smaller and smaller computers to the point where it had made one of the first machines to be called a "personal computer", the 9100A.
In 1983, Hewlett-Packard released the HP-150, also known as the HP Touchscreen. The included device used a new system for touch input, featuring a grid of infrared emitters and detectors in the monitor's bezel. When the infrared beams were interrupted, the HP-150 could locate where the user was touching the screen. However, the system had its faults: dust would get into the infrared holes and require vacuuming. The design wasn't ergonomic either, users would complain of muscle fatigue, or "Gorilla Arm" from keeping their arm outstretched and unsupported for long periods of time. This first foray into a consumer touchscreen device wasn't incredibly popular. When the HP Touchscreen II released in 1984, the touch screen was optional, and rarely added.
Meanwhile, other touch technologies were being developed. Myron Krueger, an American computer artist developed the Video Place, a screen that could track a user's silhouette and movements. Multi-touch was also proven in 1982 at the University of Toronto by Nimish Mehta. This design also used a camera to identify where the user was touching the screen. The first multi-touch overlay was developed in 1984 by Bob Boie of Bell Labs, creating a true capacitive screen that could detect multiple points of contact.
As computers continued to shrink, tech companies started seeing the possibilities of handheld devices. Apple released the MessagePad, also called the Newton, in 1993 as a revolutionary new tool: the PDA. These used a touchscreen that was made for a stylus, and boasted a much anticipated feature: handwriting recognition. However, the high price point and problems interpreting user writing kept it from being successful. At this time, IBM released the first cellphone with a touchscreen, the Simon Personal Communicator. Today, it's recognized as the first true smartphone with a calendar, address book, and notepad.
The most popular series of touchscreen devices was the Pilot by Palm Computing. Introduced in 1996, these PDAs were a staple in the business world, improving on many of the Apple Newton's features. In fact, the Palm Pilot's handwriting recognition was so successful that it was eventually used on later models of the Newton.
By the end of the 1990s, touchscreens became part of computer culture and interest increased. Wayne Westerman, a graduate student of the University of Delaware published a doctoral dissertation about capacitive touchscreens in 1999 that would lead to their popularity today. He also formed the company FingerWorks to create new devices based on his findings.
Touch screens really started to enter the public eye in this decade. FingerWorks used its research to develop the first multi-touch gesture-based products. Most of these were computer accessories like keyboards with "zero-force" keys, exploring new methods of input. Much like the Apple Newton, these products were innovative, but expensive. Products such as the TouchStream LP, MacNTouch, and the iGesture Pad were well received, but did not see much use outside of users with disabilities. In 2005, FingerWorks announced they were no longer in business, but continued to file and process patents into 2007. The company was bought by multinational corporation that would be known for causing the success of touchscreens to skyrocket.
Big tech companies continued to see how touchscreens could be used in new ways. Alias|Wavefront created the PortfolioWall, a gesture-based computer that made visual design a breeze. Nintendo released the first successful video game console with touch input in 2004, the DS. Microsoft began developing their own devices as well. The Microsoft Surface (not to be confused with today's line of tablets) was a computer the size table with a flat touchscreen display on top. Soon, ATMs, fitness machines, gas pumps, and checkout counters would feature this style of input as it grew in popularity.
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